The Nexus Today

Selected readings on topics related to the Nexus of Energy, Water, and Climate

The Nexus and Drought

Wells Dry, Fertile Plains Turn to Dust. Agricultural depletion of the High Plains aquifer in the face of drought. Includes map graphic and slide show. “Vast stretches of Texas farmland lying over the aquifer no longer support irrigation. In west-central Kansas, up to a fifth of the irrigated farmland along a 100-mile swath of the aquifer has already gone dry. In many other places, there no longer is enough water to supply farmers’ peak needs during Kansas’ scorching summers. And when the groundwater runs out, it is gone for good. Refilling the aquifer would require hundreds, if not thousands, of years of rains.” Wines, M., 2013. Wells Dry, Fertile Plains Turn to Dust. New York Times, 19 May 2013.

If Conservation Fails, Industry May Try Groundwater. “Last summer, near the height of the most intense drought in recorded Texas history, ConocoPhillips officials grew concerned. The company operates an oil refinery … and its major water source, the San Bernard River, was getting drier. So ConocoPhillips applied for a permit to tap a well on company land …. Conservation measures at the Sweeny refinery would “not make up for the diminished surface water availability” resulting from the drought…. ConocoPhillips was hardly the only industrial plant scrambling to secure more water because of the drought, which still covers more than 90 percent of Texas ….” Galbraith, K. 2012. If Conservation Fails, Industry May Try Groundwater. New York Times, 28 February 2012.

Reviewing Impacts of Historic Drought Facing California and the West. “[California towns] have been running out of water, farmers and cattle ranchers are growing desperate, grape vines are dying, Sierra snowpack is a fraction of what it should be, and talk of desalination plants up and down the Golden State’s coast is growing…. KPCC, Southern California Public Radio, recounted past California droughts from 1987 to 1992 and from 2007 to 2009, but added that mega-droughts can last anywhere from several decades to a century — even longer. “We haven’t seen that since the Middle Ages,” Lynn Ingram, a professor of earth and planetary sciences at UC Berkeley told the station. Between 900 AD and 1400 AD, such mega-droughts were common in the region that is now California. Scientists don’t know just what causes these mega-droughts, and many forecast a rainier climate for California as the globe’s average temperature continues to rise. That rain, however, is expected to evaporate more quickly as temperatures rise, and in any case more rain and less snow means valuable Sierra snowpack will be greatly diminished.” Lieberman, B. 2014. Reviewing Impacts of Historic Drought Facing California and the West. Yale Climate Connection, 18 February 2014.

Loss of Snowpack and Glaciers In Rockies Poses Water Threat. “From the Columbia River basin in the U.S. to the Prairie Provinces of Canada, scientists and policy makers are confronting a future in which the loss of snow and ice in the Rocky Mountains could imperil water supplies for agriculture, cities and towns, and hydropower production.” Struzik, E. 2014. Loss of Snowpack and Glaciers In Rockies Poses Water Threat. Yale environment 360, 10 July 2014.

Changing Rains. “[Drought due to] rainfall changes that devastated … early civilizations long predate industrialization; they were triggered by naturally occurring climate shifts whose causes remain uncertain. By contrast, climate change brought about by increasing greenhouse gas concentrations is our own doing. It, too, will influence precipitation patterns, in ways that, though not always easy to predict, could prove equally damaging.” Kolbert, E. 2009. Changing Rains. National Geographic, April, 2009.

Did Climate Influence Angkor’s Collapse? “Historians have offered various explanations for the fall of an empire that stretched across much of Southeast Asia between the 9th and 14th centuries, from deforestation to conflict with rival kingdoms. But the new study offers the strongest evidence yet that two severe droughts, punctuated by bouts of heavy monsoon rain, may have weakened the empire by shrinking water supplies for drinking and agriculture, and damaging Angkor’s vast irrigation system, which was central to its economy. The kingdom is thought to have collapsed in 1431 after a raid by the Siamese from present-day Thailand.” The Earth Institute, Columbia University, 2010. Did Climate Influence Angkor’s Collapse?

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The Nexus and Floods

When It Rains, It Will Really Pour. “[At] a conference in Sacramento… state and federal scientists warned emergency planners, insurance executives and others about the danger of a superstorm riding into California from warmer Pacific waters on an “atmospheric river” and inundating everything in sight…. [A] parallel prediction [is] that throughout the Western states, the power of extreme winter storms will increase by more than 12 percent over the next 20 years, and more thereafter…. [At the same time, it is predicted] that overall precipitation in the Southwest will decline by about 7.5 percent.” Barringer, F. 2012. When It Rains, It Will Really Pour. New York Times, 02 March 2012.

Devastating Floods and Heavy Rains. “Climate change has contributed to a rise in extreme weather events – including higher-intensity hurricanes in the North Atlantic and heavier rainfalls across the country. Scientists project that climate change will increase the frequency of heavy rainstorms, putting many communities at risk for devastation from floods. Flooding can cause a range of health impacts and risks, including: death and injury, contaminated drinking water, hazardous material spills, increased populations of disease-carrying insects and rodents, moldy houses, and community disruption and displacement. As rains become heavier, streams, rivers, and lakes can overflow, increasing the risk of water-borne pathogens flowing into drinking water sources. Downpours can also damage critical infrastructure like sewer and solid waste systems, triggering sewage overflows that can spread into local waters.” National map of flood vulnerability. Focus on health impacts. Natural Resources Defense Council, Flooding: Devastating Floods and Heavy Rains.

Climate Change and the Floods. “Yes, it is true. The atmosphere is warmer, so it holds more water vapor. And that means there’s more water available to fall to land in storms and thereby cause flooding. In fact, as Kevin Trenberth of the National Center for Atmospheric Research has said, the effect of increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is now part of the climate system’s background state. So it plays some role ineveryevent. But the important questions arewhatrole specifically, andjust how much? For this event, we don’t know yet. Period. It’s possible that climate change had a significant impact, through a variety of mechanisms. But it’s also possible that in this particular event, the impact was relatively modest.” Yulsman, T. 2014. Climate Change and the Floods. Discover, 01 May 2014.

Stories of recent floods worldwide:

Rainstorms Flood Sichuan Province in China.

4000 Still Missing in Indian Floods.

Flooding Inundates Part of Canadian Province [Alberta].

Canada: Storm Floods Toronto.

British Floods Could Be a Harbinger.

Heavy Rains in Australia Leave 4 Dead.

Eight days, 1000-year rain, 100-year flood: The story of Boulder County’s Flood of 2013.

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The Nexus and Weather Extremes

Tail Risk vs. Alarmism. 31 March. Argument for why climate scientists have an obligation to discuss the low probability/extreme consequences of the “tails” of probability distributions, e.g. probability of temperature increase associated with doubling of CO2 relative to pre-industrial values. “Do we not have a professional obligation to talk about the whole probability distribution, given the tough consequences at the tail of the distribution? I think we do, in spite of the fact that we open ourselves to the accusation of alarmism and thereby risk reducing our credibility.” Emanuel, K. 2014. Tail Risk vs. Alarmism. Climate Change National Forum. 31 March.

Explaining Extreme Events of 2011 from a Climate Perspective. A series of articles on the current scientific basis for the possibility of “attribution” of various extreme weather events to climate change. “While much work remains to be dome in attribution science, to develop better observational datasets, to improve methodologies, to make further progress in understanding and to assess and improve climate models, the contributions in this article demonstrate the potential that already exists for meaningful assessments of the connection between specific extreme weather or climate events that occurred in a particular year and climate change.” Peterson, T., P. Stott, and S. Herring, eds., 2012. Explaining Extreme Events of 2011 from a Climate Perspective. American Meteorology Society, 4 May.

Unprecedented Heat and rainfall Extremes Are Here… Causing Intense Human Suffering. Title is quote from article by Coumou and Rahmstorf in Nature giving evidence for climate change as a factor in extreme weather. The Romm article then takes a broader view of the issue; numerous related links. Romm, J. 2012. Nature: Strong Evidence Manmade ‘Unprecedented Heat and rainfall Extremes Are Here… Causing Intense Human Suffering.’ Climate Progress, 26 March 2012.

Extremely hot. Explains with simple normal distribution curves how modest warming can lead to greater frequency of heat waves. Rahmstorf, S. and D. Coumou, 2012. Extremely hot. RealClimate, 26 March 2012.

Predicting and managing extreme events. A view of how statistically reliable attributions of various kinds of extreme weather events with climate change are. “The current state of the science for detection and attribution of changes in extremes varies greatly by type of event. We have a relatively good understanding of what can lead to changes in heat waves, and our data are fairly adequate to detect those changes over time. However, with ice storms, both our physical understanding of what factors influence their prevalence and our data on their frequency and intensity are inadequate. For most other phenomena—tornadoes, snow, drought, and so forth—our level of understanding and robustness of data collection fall between those two extremes.” Lubchenco, J. and T. Karl, 2012. Predicting and managing extreme events. Physics Today, March, 2012.

Is Extreme Weather Linked to Global Warming? “In the past year, the world has seen a large number of extreme weather events, from the Russian heat wave last summer, to the severe flooding in Pakistan, to the recent tornadoes in the U.S. In a Yale Environment 360 forum, a panel of experts weighs in on whether the wild weather may be tied to increasing global temperatures.” Yale environment 360, 2011. Forum: Is Extreme Weather Linked to Global Warming? 02 June 2011.

What is the connection between hurricanes and global warming? Data shows an increasing number of hurricanes annually, but is the because of an improved ability to observer them via aircraft, radar, and satellites? Article contains numerous links. Cook, J. 2010. What is the connection between hurricanes and global warming? Skeptical Science, 26 June 2010.

Hurricanes in a Warmer World. Exploring the potential causes of increased storm intensity. Data suggests that the “most powerful hurricanes [categories 4 and 5] are increasing over the same time period that ocean temperatures are increasing. At the same time, the less powerful hurricanes are decreasing….” This an in-depth review of the subject, with an extensive reference list. Ekwurzel, B., with help from K. Trenberth and K. Emanuel, 2006. Hurricanes in a Warmer World. Exploring the potential causes of increased storm intensity. Union of Concerned Scientists.

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Nexus-related Infrastructure Vulnerabilities

Commitment to Release Surging Seas for All Coastal States. Describes the latest release of Climate Central’s Surging Seas web tool and includes a link to it. ” Surging Seas helps local planners and policy makers with the tailored local information they need to understand and respond to the risks of sea level rise and coastal flooding…. The Risk Finder incorporates the latest, high-resolution, high-accuracy lidar elevation data supplied by NOAA and assesses exposure of countless infrastructure and other elements … in order to allow users to [assess] vulnerability ….” [Note: climatecentral.org is a rich source of information on all aspects of the Nexus.] Climate Central, 2014.

Coverage of Surging Seas Inundates the Nation. Links to a large number of media stories about Climate Central’s Surging Seas report. Climate Central, 2012. Coverage of Surging Seas Inundates the Nation. 16 March 2012.

Infrastructure Threatened by Climate Change Poses a National Crisis. “Whether it’s water or communication systems, infrastructure is ill prepared to keep functioning under changing climate conditions.” Lehmann, E. and ClimateWire, 2014. Infrastructure Threatened by Climate Change Poses a National Crisis. Scientific American, 6 March 2014.

Climate Change and Infrastructure, Urban Systems, and Vulnerabilities. “A central theme of the report is that vulnerabilities and impacts are issues beyond physical infrastructures themselves. The concern is with the value of services provided by infrastructures, where the true consequences of impacts and disruptions involve not only the costs associated with the clean-up, repair, and/or replacement of affected infrastructures, but also economic, social, and environmental effects as supply chains are disrupted, economic activities are suspended, and/or social well-being is threatened.” Wilbanks, T. and S. Fernandez, eds., 2014. Climate Change and Infrastructure, Urban Systems, and Vulnerabilities. Technical Report for the US Department of Energy in Support of the National Climate Assessment.

The Energy Sector’s Vulnerabilities to Climatic Conditions. Interactive map showing specific examples of vulnerabilities of various energy sources to increasing temperatures, decreasing water availability, increasing storms, flooding, and sea level rise. U.S. Department of Energy. The Energy Sector’s Vulnerabilities to Climatic Conditions.

Climate Change: Energy Infrastructure Risks and Adaptation Efforts. “Climate changes are projected to affect infrastructure throughout all major stages of the energy supply chain, thereby increasing the risk of disruptions. For example:

√ Resource extraction and processing infrastructure, including oil and natural gas platforms, refineries, and processing plants, is often located near the coast, making it vulnerable to severe weather and sea level rise.

√ Fuel transportation and storage infrastructure, including pipelines, barges, railways and storage tanks, is susceptible to damage from severe weather, melting permafrost, and increased precipitation.

√ Electricity generation infrastructure, such as power plants, is vulnerable to severe weather or water shortages, which can interrupt operations.

√ Electricity transmission and distribution infrastructure, including power lines and substations, is susceptible to severe weather and may be stressed by rising demand for electricity as temperatures rise.

“In addition, impacts to infrastructure may also be amplified by a number of broad, systemic factors, including water scarcity, energy system interdependencies, increased electricity demand, and the compounding effects of multiple climate impacts.” U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2014. Climate Change: Energy Infrastructure Risks and Adaptation Efforts. 4 march 2014.

Climate Change: Implications for the Energy Sector. “In the absence of strong mitigation policies, economic growth and the rising global population will continue to drive energy demand upwards, and hence GHG [greenhouse gas] emissions will also rise. Climate change itself may also increase energy use due to greater demand for cooling. The means and infrastructure to produce and transport energy will be adversely impacted by climate change. The oil and gas industry is likely to suffer from increased disruption and production shutdowns due to extreme weather events affecting both offshore and onshore facilities. Power plants, especially those in coastal areas, will be affected by extreme weather events and rising sea levels. Critical energy transport infrastructure is at risk, with oil and gas pipelines in coastal areas affected by rising sea levels and those in cold climates affected by thawing permafrost. Electricity grids will be impacted by storms, and the rise in global temperature may affect electricity generation including thermal and hydroelectric stations in some locations. Weather changes may also affect bioenergy crops.” Cambridge University and World Energy Council, 2014. Climate Change: Implications for the Energy Sector. June, 2014.

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Carbon Dioxide and the Greenhouse

The Discovery of Global warming: The Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Effect. Extended essay on the history of the developing understanding of the role of carbon dioxide in increasing average global temperatures via theory and observations. Links to separate essays on Other Greenhouse Gasses and Simple Models of Climate. American Institute of Physics, 2014. The Discovery of Global warming: The Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Effect.

Overview of Greenhouse Gasses. Substantive overview of sources and sinks of CO2. Numerous links to related pages, including pages on other greenhouse gasses. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2014. Overview of Greenhouse Gasses. 17 April 2014.

The Greenhouse Effect. Overview of the physics of the greenhouse effect aimed at students. Links to two student activities. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, The Greenhouse Effect.

Global carbon dioxide in atmosphere passes milestone level. “For the first time in human history, the concentration of climate-warming carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has passed the milestone level of 400 parts per million (ppm). The last time so much greenhouse gas was in the air was several million years ago, when the Arctic was ice-free, savannah spread across the Sahara desert and sea level was up to 40 metres higher than today. These conditions are expected to return in time, with devastating consequences for civilisation, unless emissions of CO2 from burning of coal, gas and oil are rapidly curtailed.” Carrington, D. 2013. Global carbon dioxide in atmosphere passes milestone level. The Guardian, 10 May 2013.

CO2 ‘significantly reduces’ nutrients in major food crops. “Rising levels of CO2 around the world will significantly impact the nutrient content of crops according to a new study. Experiments show levels of zinc, iron and protein are likely to be reduced by up to 10% in wheat and rice by 2050. The scientists say this could have health implications for billions of people, especially in the developing world.” McGrath, M. 2014. CO2 ‘significantly reduces’ nutrients in major food crops. BBC News, Science and Environment. 07 May 2014.

Time history of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Startling data visualization showing the time history of atmospheric CO2 back 800,000 years, with its dramatic rise in the industrial era. You Tube, 2014. Time history of atmospheric carbon dioxide, by CIRES and NOAA. 02 May 2014.

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Other Greenhouse Drivers

Good Gas, Bad Gas. “Burn natural gasa [methane] and it warms your house. But let it leak, from fracked wells or the melting Arctic, and it warms the whole planet.” Includes Photo Gallery, Special Report, and Interactive Graphic. Lavelle, M. 2012. Good Gas, Bad Gas. National Geographic, December, 2012.

Climate change and forest fires synergistically drive widespread melt events of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Underwater glacier canyons in Greenland are both deeper and extend further inland than previously thought, putting the glaciers in greater contact with warming oceans and exacerbating melting. Forest fire-produced black carbon (commonly referred to as soot) is driving increased melting on the ice’s surface, as soot darkens the ice and captures more heat from sunlight. Thus the ice sheet is more vulnerable to accelerating melting from both above and below ground than previous assessments have suggested. As a result, the Greenland ice sheet is likely to contribute more to sea-level rise in the coming century than previously expected. Keegan, K., M. Albert, J. McConnell, and I. Baker, 2014. Climate change and forest fires synergistically drive widespread melt events of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 23 March 2014.

HFC Phase-Down ‘Could Avoid 200 Billion Tons of CO2e by 2050′. “Alternatives [to hydroclorofluorocarbons] already exist to replace climate-damaging HFCs for most industry sectors, including natural refrigerants such as CO2, and hydrocarbons, and many more are in the development pipeline. Many of these alternatives have comparable or better energy efficiency than the gases that they are replacing, providing additional climate benefits from reduced energy use, and cost savings to consumers. Traditionally, the re-engineering that accompanies the switch to new alternatives has produced improvements in energy efficiency of air conditioners and refrigeration of 30 percent to 60 percent.” Environmental Leader, 2014. HFC Phase-Down ‘Could Avoid 200 Billion Tons of CO2e by 2050′.

Overview of Greenhouse Gasses: Nitrous Oxide Emissions.“… human activities such as agriculture, fossil fuel combustion, wastewater management, and industrial processes are increasing the amount of N2O in the atmosphere. Nitrous oxide molecules stay in the atmosphere for an average of 120 years before being removed by a sink or destroyed through chemical reactions. The impact of 1 pound of N2O on warming the atmosphere is over 300 times that of 1 pound of carbon dioxide…. Nitrous oxide is emitted when people add nitrogen to the soil through the use of synthetic fertilizers. Agricultural soil management is the largest source of N2O emissions in the United States, accounting for about 75% of total U.S. N2O …. Nitrous oxide is also emitted during the breakdown of nitrogen in livestock manure and urine….” U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2014. Overview of Greenhouse Gasses: Nitrous Oxide Emissions.

Land, irrigation water, greenhouse gas, and reactive nitrogen burdens of meat, eggs, and dairy production in the United States. The environmental burden of beef production is ten times higher – requiring 28 times more land, 11 times more water, 5 times more greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and 6 times more reactive nitrogen (Nr) – than other livestock categories. Compared to agricultural products such as wheat, rice and potatoes, beef production’s greenhouse gas emissions are even higher, releasing 11 times more GHGs. Cows are not efficient at converting feed to protein. Eshel, G., A. Shepon, T. Makov, and R. Milo, 2014.Land, irrigation water, greenhouse gas, and reactive nitrogen burdens of meat, eggs, and dairy production in the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

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Conventional Energy Sources: Coal

Coal. Overview of environmental impacts of coal mining and use in power generation, in particular consumption and contamination of water resources. Links to related topics. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2013. Coal.

The Clean Unclean Facts About Coal. “While coal use in the U.S. is declining, thanks in part to the domestic natural-gas boom, it is rising worldwide, especially in industrializing countries where it is a relatively cheap, plentiful, and accessible fuel…. proposed rules focus on existing coal plants because they are both a big part of the climate problem and a big part of the solution: given the practicalities of existing energy grids, renewable power simply can’t be deployed quickly or widely enough to singlehandedly head off the worst effects of climate change…. The best-developed method for directly reducing carbon emissions from coal power is carbon capture and storage—capturing and compressing carbon dioxide before it is released from power plants, then storing it deep in porous underground rock formations…. But carbon capture and storage technology remains complex and expensive, and its progress has been retarded by the lack of incentives for power plants to install and improve it. (Why pay to capture and store carbon when you can pump it into the atmosphere for free?)” Nijhuis, M. 2014. The Clean Unclean Facts About Coal. The New Yorker. 4 June 2014.

Can Coal Ever Be Clean? “Coal provides 40 percent of the world’s electricity. It is the cheapest energy source. We burn eight billion tons of it a year, and demand is surging worldwide. But it produces 39 percent of global CO₂ emissions. It is the dirtiest of fossil fuels. It kills thousands a year in mines and many more with polluted air.” Nijhuis, M. 2014. Can Coal Ever Be Clean? National Geographic, April, 2014.

Power Plant Becomes a Model for Cleaner Operations. “A massive coal-fired power plant in western Pennsylvania is turning from one of the worst polluters in the country to a model for how such a facility can clean up its act…. [It] will end four decades of nearly limitless pollution from two of its units that had long escaped regulation…. The owners of the… power plant — it releases more sulfur dioxide than any other power plant in the U.S. — have committed to installing $750 million worth of pollution control equipment by 2016 that will make deeper cuts in sulfur than the rule it once opposed… [The] plant’s majority owner, now says it can do it — and without electricity bills increasing …. The plant in the future will likely have to reduce smog-forming nitrogen oxides further…. And it will also have to comply with upcoming rules to reduce the gases blamed for global warming.” Cappiello, D. and K. Begos, 2014. Power Plant Becomes a Model for Cleaner Operations. Associated Press, 28 May 2014.

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Conventional Energy Sources: Hydraulic Fracturing for Natural Gas and Oil

Fracking: The Debate

In the oil and gas industry, the relatively recent widespread deployment of horizontal drilling technologies and the hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”) technique for releasing tightly-held hydrocarbons from shale deposits has led to an explosion in drilling and domestic production. U.S. natural gas supplies are estimated to be enough to provide for our demands for the next century at current levels. The cornucopia of supply has led to reduced gas prices, making it an attractive alternative for energy generation with coal, which produces twice the greenhouse gasses when burned. Increased domestic oil and gas production has in principle reduced our dependency on foreign supplies, even opening the possibility of the U.S. becoming a net exporter. With increased production have come jobs. Based on these facts, one can argue that hydrofracturing, along with horizontal drilling technology, is a welcome development.

Other facts lead to an opposite argument, however. Fracking involves pumping tremendous amounts of water, along with a complex cocktail of chemicals, into wells under high pressure. There is concern about the chemicals–some of which are highly toxic–entering domestic ground water supplies; there are documented such cases. Of greater concern is disposal of the water coming out of the wells, which is not only rich in chemicals, but in some cases also has been documented to contain high levels of radioactivity. Some such water is held in ponds, some is “treated” and then released into waterways that provide drinking water for cities downstream. Data collected from gas wells around the country indicates that methane—a much more potent greenhouse than CO2—leaked from poorly-sealed wells negates any advantage of gas over coal. And increased use of natural gas does not solve our climate change problem, though some argue for its value as a “bridge fuel” during transition to non-fossil-fuel energy sources.

What is hydraulic fracturing? Detailed graphic shows how hydrofracturing technology works. “Hydraulic fracturing is a process used in nine out of 10 natural gas wells in the United States, where millions of gallons of water, sand and chemicals are pumped underground to break apart the rock and release the gas. Scientists are worried that the chemicals used in fracturing may pose a threat either underground or when waste fluids are handled and sometimes spilled on the surface.” Granberg, A. [no date]. What is hydraulic fracturing? Pro Publica.

Implications of Shale Gas Development for Climate Change. “{Modeling suggests that] lower prices [due to new gas abundance] have two main effects: increasing overall energy consumption, and encouraging substitution away from sources such as coal, nuclear, renewables, and electricity [use]…. Our main conclusions are that natural gas can help reduce GHG [greenhouse gas] emissions, but in the absence of targeted climate policy measures, it will not substantially change the course of global GHG concentrations. Abundant natural gas can, however, help reduce the costs of achieving GHG reduction goals.” Newell, R.G. and D. Raimi, 2014. Implications of Shale Gas Development for Climate Change. Environmental Science and Technology.

The Right Way to Develop Shale Gas. Bloomberg, former mayor of New York City and Krupp of the Environmental Defense Fund argue for the benefits of shale gas development. “The shale gas boom is indeed lowering energy costs, creating new jobs, boosting domestic manufacturing and delivering some measurable environmental benefits as well.” They are optimistic that “industry leaders, elected officials and environmentalists [can] work togetherto make shale gas development safer. Doing so will not only help theindustry meet reasonable pollution limits, it will help the industry regain public trust…. This is essentially a data acquisition and management problem — the kind that we know we can solve.” Bloomberg, M and F. Krupp, 2014, The Right Way to Develop Shale Gas, New York Times, 29 April 2014.

The Environmental and Health Hazards of Gas Drilling. In letters to the editor, the authors vigorously object to the thesis of Bloomberg and Krupp. “The chemical contamination of air and water caused by hydraulic fracturing is no more a “data acquisition and management problem” than are the hazards posed by lead paint or cigarettes. In all cases, the problem is inherent to the technology or product…. data show that pollutants related to hydraulic fracturing include the carcinogens benzene and radon, for which there are no safe exposure levels.” Bushkin-Bedient, S. and S. Steingraber; Parrett, T. 2014. The Environmental and Health Hazards of Gas Drilling, New York Times, 2014.

Natural Gas and Its Role In the U.S. Energy Endgame. “The boom in natural gas production has undeniable benefits for the United States. But two policy analysts argue that embracing a monolithic energy future dominated by gas will mean the loss of a golden opportunity: Leveraging cheap, abundant gas to create a sustainable future based on renewable power.” Doran, K. and A. Reed. 2012. Natural Gas and Its Role In the U.S. Energy Endgame. Yale Environment 360, 13 August 2012.

Another View on Gas Drilling in the Context of Climate Change. Article has numerous links to strongly varying views on exploitation of natural gas. Revkin, A. 2013. Another View on Gas Drilling in the Context of Climate Change. New York Times, 29 July 2013.

Wastewater Becomes Issue in Debate of Gas Drilling. “.. [for horizontal hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, a controversial natural-gas extraction process, wastewater has emerged as a challenging issue for the industry and regulators…. The drilling involves injecting vast amounts of water and chemicals into underground shale to release the gas. Should it begin in New York, the gas wells could generate hundreds of millions of gallons of toxic wastewater annually, and it is not clear where it could go…. Some environmental groups argue that… the state [New York] would be ill-prepared to deal with the enormous amount of wastewater produced by thousands of fracked wells.” Navarro, M. 2012. Wastewater Becomes Issue in Debate of Gas Drilling.

As Fracking Booms, Growing Concerns About Wastewater. “With hydraulic fracturing for oil and gas continuing to proliferate across the U.S., scientists and environmental activists are raising questions about whether millions of gallons of contaminated drilling fluids could be threatening water supplies and human health.” Drouin, R. 2014. As Fracking Booms, Growing Concerns About Wastewater. Yale Environment 360. 18 February 2014.

The Potential Downside of Natural Gas. “Conventional wisdom, strongly promoted by the natural gas industry, is that natural gas drives down American emissions of carbon dioxide, by substituting for carbon-rich coal….. But in other ways, cheap natural gas drives emissions up…. new supplies of gas [are] in places where there is no pipeline. In those cases, the natural gas is burned off, or flared, because there is no way to ship it economically…. some of the natural gas escapes unburned. Its main component, methane, is a global warming gas and is far more powerful than carbon dioxide…. Natural gas has also displaced some investment in renewables and nuclear…. Low natural gas prices decrease the benefit of energy-efficiency investments as well….” Wald, M. 2014. The Potential Downside of Natural Gas, New York Times, 3 June 2014.

Will fracking put too much fizz in your water? “Leaky gas wells loom large in debate over drilling’s impact on water quality.” Stokstad, E. 2014. Will fracking put too much fizz in your water? Science, Special Issue: Gas Revolution. 27 June 2014, 1468-1469.

Hunting a climate fugitive. “Plugging methane leaks in the urban maze could be key to making shale gas climate-friendly.” Kintisch, E. 2014. Hunting a climate fugitive. Science, Special Issue: Gas Revolution. 27 June 2014. 1472-1473.

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Conventional Energy Sources: Nuclear

‘To Those Influencing Environmental Policy But Opposed to Nuclear Power’. New York Times article discussing an open letter by four eminent climate scientists arguing in favor of expanded development of nuclear power. From the letter: “… continued opposition to nuclear power threatens humanity’s ability to avoid dangerous climate change. We call on your organization to support the development and deployment of safer nuclear power systems as a practical means of addressing the climate change problem.” Link to this letter. The Times article also includes a link to a lengthy rebuttal to that letter by four eminent Japanese scientists. From the rebuttal: “… any major accident at a nuclear power plant may have irrevocable consequences. In this sense, we believe that you and others may have underestimated the risks of nuclear power generation, while also underestimating the possible role of other climate change measures, such as fuel switching, renewable energies, and energy saving…. ” Link to the Japanese letter. Revkin, A. 2014. ‘To Those Influencing Environmental Policy But Opposed to Nuclear Power’, 3 November 2014

Forget Nuclear. Arguments from RMI against expansion of nuclear power. “This non-technical summary article compares the cost, climate protection potential, reliability, financial risk, market success, deployment speed, and energy contribution of new nuclear power with those of its low- or no-carbon competitors. It explains why soaring taxpayer subsidies aren’t attracting investors. Capitalists instead favor climate-protecting competitors with less cost, construction time, and financial risk. The nuclear industry claims it has no serious rivals, let alone those competitors—which, however, already out-produce nuclear power worldwide and are growing enormously faster.” Lovins, A, I. Sheikh, and A. Markevich, 2008. Forget Nuclear. Rocky Mountain Institute.

Sustainable Development and Nuclear Power. A comprehensive, data-rich report making the argument for the benefits of nuclear power generation in comparison with other power generation sources. International Atomic Energy Agency, apparently 1997. Sustainable Development and Nuclear Power.

The Future of Nuclear Power. An extensive collection of articles detailing the “risks and rewards” of nuclear power generation. Scientific American, 2009. The Future of Nuclear Power.

Radioactive Waste Disposal: An Environmental Perspective. “This booklet describes the different categories of waste, discusses disposal practices for each type. and describes the way they are regulated.” Environmental Protection Agency, 2013. Radioactive Waste Disposal: An Environmental Perspective.

Small Reactor Designs. “Because of their small size… they have many useful applications, including generating emission-free electricity in remote locations where there is little to no access to the main power grid or providing process heat to industrial applications. They are ‘modular’ in design, which means they can be manufactured completely in a factory and delivered and installed at the site in modules, giving them the name ‘small modular reactors’….” Site has internal links to other aspects of nuclear energy and links to external related sites. Nuclear Energy Institute, 2014. Small Reactor Designs.

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Biofuels

EESI’s Carol Werner Clarifies the Climate Impacts of Biofuels in Solar Today Article. “… biofuels may produce greater greenhouse gas emissions than conventional petroleum fuels if, for example, producing them has resulted in rainforest deforestation or destruction of other ecosystems that store vast amounts of carbon…. When produced using unsustainable practices, biofuels have the inherent potential to negatively affect soils, water resources, biodiversity and additional social and environmental factors. Furthermore, as the Science papers illustrate, direct and indirect emissions from certain biofuels have the potential to rival or even exceed emissions from equivalent petroleum fuels during a given timeframe…. [However,] several feedstocks (as well as the most appropriate lands to produce them) that can be used to produce climate-beneficial biofuels…. Feedstocks most likely to help counter climate change are those having little effect on agricultural commodity markets, primarily agricultural wastes and feedstocks from nonagricultural lands, like algae.” Werner, C. 2008. Resolving the Biofuels Debate. Solar Today, Jul/Aug 2008.

Milestone Claimed in Creating Fuel From Waste. “After months of frustrating delays, a chemical company announced Wednesday that it had produced commercial quantities of ethanol from wood waste and other nonfood vegetative matter, a long-sought goal that, if it can be expanded economically, has major implications for providing vehicle fuel and limiting greenhouse gas emissions.” Wald, M. 2013. Milestone Claimed in Creating Fuel From Waste. New York Times, 31 July 2013.

Green Crude: The Quest to Unlock Algae’s Energy Potential. “A host of startup companies are pursuing new technologies that they claim will soon lead to large-scale commercialization of biofuels made from algae. But questions remain about the viability and environmental benefits of what some of its developers are calling ‘green crude.'” Gunther, M. 2012. Green Crude: The Quest to Unlock Algae’s Energy Potential. Yale environment 360, 15 October 2012.

Corn for Food, Not Fuel. “The price of corn is a critical variable in the world food equation, and food markets are on edge because American corn supplies are plummeting. The combination of the drought and American ethanol policy will lead in many parts of the world to widespread inflation, more hunger, less food security, slower economic growth and political instability, especially in poor countries.” Carter, C. and H. Miller, 2012, Op-ed contributors. Corn for Food, Not Fuel. New York Times, 30 July 2012.

Bioenergie: Moglichkeiten und Grenzen (Bioenergy-Chances and Limits.). Comprehensive German report on biomass as potential energy source. Primary recommendation: “Germany should not focus on Bioenergy to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and GHG emissions. this is the conclusion by the authors of this report after balancing all the arguments for and against the use of biomass as an energy source. Particularly, it should insist that the eu 2020 target of 10 per cent renewable content in road fuel energy is revisited. Rather, Germany should concentrate on other renewable energy sources such as solar heat, photovoltaics, and wind energy, whose area demand, GHG emissions, or other environmental impacts are lower than those of bioenergy. energy conservation and energy efficiency improvements should have priority.” Leopoldina Nationale Akademy der Wissenshaften. 2012. Bioenergie: Moglichkeiten und Grenzen (Bioenergy-Chances and Limits.). Kurzfassung und Empfehlungen (Executive Summary and Recommendation).

German Researhers Hand Biofuels a Poor Review. “Germany’s National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina has come down firmly against the use of crops for energy. In a report issued today from a panel of more than 20 experts who have been working together since 2010, the academy concludes that biofuels should play only a small part in the move toward sustainable sources of energy. Biofuels use more land area, generate more greenhouse gas emissions, and have a greater impact on the environment than other alternative energy sources such as photovoltaic solar energy, solar thermal energy, or wind power. Biofuel crops may also find themselves competing with food crops for valuable land.” Link to the report (in German and English). Clery, D. 2012. German Researhers Hand Biofuels a Poor Review. ScienceInsider, 26 July 2012.

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Renewable Energy Sources: General

Renewable Energy Futures Study. “The National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s (NREL) Renewable Electricity Futures Study (RE Futures) is an initial investigation of the extent to which renewable energy supply can meet the electricity demands of the continental United States over the next several decades.” Visualizations and numerous links, including link to full report. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2014. Renewable Energy Futures Study, 30 May 2014.

Water May Top Up the Case For Renewables. Presents the case that wind turbine energy in gaining in cost-effectiveness on energy generated by coal, and that a particular advantage in renewable resources is in their relatively low water use, a particularly important factor in regions suffering from drought due to climate change. “[Relative to thermal energy plants] wind and PV [photovoltaic] generation use very little water. The renewable technologies that do need a drink are solar thermal electricity generation, biomass and waste-to-energy, geothermal and – in a more direct sense – hydro-electric.” Liebreich, M. 2012. Water May Top Up the Case For Renewables. Bloomberg New Energy Finance. in Shinbone Wind Energy Center, 10 December 2012.

Renewable Energy for America. “Renewable energy comes from natural sources that are constantly and sustainably replenished. The technologies featured here will make our families healthier, more secure, and more prosperous by improving our air quality, reducing our reliance on fossil fuels, curbing global warming, adding good jobs to the economy and — when they’re properly sited — protecting environmental values such as habitat and water quality. Working together, policymakers, communities, businesses, investors, utilities, and farmers can help build a sustainable future for America and the planet.” Overview of renewable energy and tutorials on specific sources. Natural Resources Defense Council. Renewable Energy for America.

Focusing on Facts: Can We Get All of Our Energy From Renewables? “It is far from ‘fact’ that only carbon-based and nuclear energy sources can meet the world’s needs. There are many studies showing that a combination of renewable sources can indeed meet that need. And that will be easier still with a rethinking of what we employ energy for and how it actually improves our lives.” Several substantive related links. Bergman, D. 2013. Focusing on Facts: Can We Get All of Our Energy From Renewables? National Geographic, 21 February, 2013.

A Farewell to Fossil Fuels. The former head of the Rocky Mountain Institute (rmi.org) make the case for how, via applications of technologies and conservation strategies, “… a U.S. economy that has grown by 158 percent by 2050 could need no oil, no coal, no nuclear energy, and one-third less natural gas — and cost $5 trillion less than business as usual, ignoring all hidden costs. Today’s fossil carbon emissions could also fall by more than four-fifths without even putting a price [e.g. cap-and-trade or a carbon tax] on them.” Lovins, A. 2012. A Farewell to Fossil Fuels. Foreign Affairs, March/April.

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Renewable Energy Sources: Wind

How a Wind Turbine Works. Substantive tutorial on wind turbines. Relevant links. U.S. Department of Energy, 2014. How a Wind Turbine Works.

Wind Industry’s New Technologies Are Helping It Compete On Price. “With new [wind turbine] technology allowing developers to build taller machines spinning longer blades, the industry has been able to produce more power at lower cost by capturing the faster winds that blow at higher elevations. This has opened up new territories in places like Michigan, Ohio and Indiana, where the price of power from turbines built 300 feet to 400 feet above the ground can now compete with conventional sources like coal.” Cardwell, Diane, 2014. Wind Industry’s New Technologies Are Helping It Compete On Price. New York Times, 20 March.

Filling the Sails of Offshore Wind Energy. “As America has stood on the sidelines, other countries such as Denmark, the United Kingdom, Germany, and even China have leapt ahead of us in developing one particularly strong—and commercially viable—renewable resource, which the United States also happens to have in abundance : offshore wind. As of June 2012 the rest of the world boasted4619 megawatts of total installed offshore wind energy capacity. Meanwhile, [the U.S. has] not even begun construction of our first offshore turbine. Lack of a clear regulatory structure, inconsistent messages from other ocean stakeholders, congressional budget battles, opposition to specific project siting, and instability in financial markets have all played a role in preventing domestic offshore wind from becoming a reality.” Conathan, M. 2013. Filling the Sails of Offshore Wind Energy, Center for American Progress, 31 January 2013.

East Coast Winds Would Support a Stable Power Grid. “Individual wind turbines and even whole wind farms remain at the mercy of local weather for how much electricity they can generate. But researchers have confirmed that linking up such farms along the entire U.S. East Coast could provide a surprisingly consistent source of power. In fact, such a setup could someday replace much of the region’s existing generating capacity, which is based on coal, natural gas, nuclear reactors, and oil.” Bernardelli, P. 2010. East Coast Winds Would Support a Stable Power Grid. Science, 05 April 2010.

Could wind power ever meet the world’s energy needs? “At the moment, wind power supplies about 4.1 percentof electric power in the United States. Still a bit player. Yet there’s a whole lot of untapped wind left in the world. Wind whipping through the Great Plains. Wind gusting off the shores. Wind circulating high up in the sky. So what would happen if we tried to harvestallof that wind?” Plumer, B. 2012. Could wind power ever meet the world’s energy needs? Washington Post, 10 September 2012.

Fact Sheet: Small Scale Wind Power for Homes, Farms, and Communities. “Small wind turbines have less generating capacity than the huge commercial turbines found on wind farms, but their reduced costs and added versatility allow wind power to be used in a wider set of applications. These small turbines are used primarily for distributed generation – generating electricity for use on-site, rather than transmitting energy over the electric grid from central power plants or wind farms. Small turbines are a small-scale alternative to solar panels, providing clean renewable energy to rural homes, farms and businesses. This reduces reliance on large fossil-fuel power plants and lowers the burden on the electrical transmission grid.” Environmental and Energy Study Institute, 2012. Fact Sheet: Small Scale Wind Power for Homes, Farms, and Communities. 05 July 2012.

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Renewable Energy Sources: Solar

Solar Basics. Tutorials on the applications of solar energy. American Solar Energy Society, Solar Basics. in SolarToday.

Rooftop Solar Adoption in Emerging Residential Markets. “Solar energy has become a tangible solution to rising electricity costs and carbon emissions for many Americans. Declining installation prices and solar-friendly policies in many states have led to tremendous growth in rooftop solar installations. In 2013, residential solar photovoltaic, or PV, capacity increased 60 percent over the previous year, reaching 792 megawatts. Today, a new solar power system is installed every four minutes in the United States.” Hernandez, M. 2014.Rooftop Solar Adoption in Emerging Residential Markets. Center for American Progress, 29 May 2014.

Mojave Mirrors: World’s Largest Solar Plant Ready to Shine. “… the Ivanpah plant is now slated to begin generating power before summer’s end. It was designed by BrightSource Energy to use more than 170,000 mirrors to focus sunlight onto boilers positioned atop three towers, which reach nearly 500 feet (150 meters) into the dry desert air. The reflected sunlight heats water in the boilers to make steam, which turns turbines to generate electricity—enough to power more than 140,000 homes.” Garthwaite, J. 2013. Mojave Mirrors: World’s Largest Solar Plant Ready to Shine. national Geographic, Daily News.

The Secret to Solar Power. Extended portrait of an activist solar entrepreneur. “… the reality of the industry — as evidenced by the enormous investments that companies like Google and Bank of America are making in residential solar power — is that it has rapidly become a smart, practical and profitable investment. Despite a lack of widespread acceptance, the market is growing and the competition is getting tight.” Himmelman, J. 2012. The Secret to Solar Power. New York Times, 09 August 2012.

David Crane and the Coming Electric Utility Apocalypse. “… NRG’s David Crane… wants to use the natural gas distribution network to replace reliance on the electric utility grid…’All we need is a technology that converts that natural gas into electricity in your basement and then solar has the partner it needs’ …. NRG is working with Deka Research… on a Stirling cycle engine [that] can generate up to 15 kW of power…. NRG’s idea is to integrate the… gas-fired generator with rooftop [photovoltaic]. Crane says that ‘for the disconnected-from-the-grid home of the future, power first comes from solar on the roof because that’s the lowest marginal cost. The Dean machine also has a battery so you decide how much or little natural gas you want to use. When there’s not enough solar, you turn on the Beacon 10. Then, ideally, the grid itself would just be the ultimate backup. It’s the coolest thing I’ve ever seen.’” Maize, K. 2014. David Crane and the Coming Electric Utility Apocalypse. Electric Power, 01 May 2014.

Smaller, cheaper, faster: Does Moore’s Law apply to solar cells? “If humanity could capture one tenth of one percent of the solar energy striking the earth – one part in one thousand – we would have access to six times as much energy as we consume in all forms today, with almost no greenhouse gas emissions. At the current rate of energy consumption increase – about 1 percent per year – we will not be using that much energy for another 180 years. It’s small wonder, then, that scientists and entrepreneurs alike are investing in solar energy technologies to capture some of the abundant power around us. Yet solar power is still a miniscule fraction of all power generation capacity on the planet. There is at most 30 gigawatts of solar generating capacity deployed today, or about 0.2 percent of all energy production. Up until now, while solar energy has been abundant, the systems to capture it have been expensive and inefficient. That is changing. Over the last 30 years, researchers have watched as the price of capturing solar energy has dropped exponentially.” Naam, R. 2011. Smaller, cheaper, faster: Does Moore’s Law apply to solar cells? Scientific American Guest Blog. 16 March 2011.

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Renewable Energy Sources: Hydropower

Hydropower refers to the capture of the energy of naturally falling water within watersheds. Dams capture water behind them, which falls through turbines, generating electricity. Dams have been built for this purpose beginning in the late 19th century and accelerating into the 20th century. The great era of dam-building during the Depression era produced the giant dams, Grand Coulee on the Columbia River, Hoover Dam on the Colorado, and the system of dams of the Tennessee Valley Authority. Besides dam-building for electrical power, their purpose has been to provide water supplies, flood control, and recreation. Hydropower provides one-fifth of the world’s electricity, second only to fossil fuels. It represents the largest source of renewable energy, which does not contribute to climate change the way burning fossil fuels does.

Despite their obvious virtues, it is becoming recognized that many dams have serious drawbacks. Massive dams have in many areas created serious environmental and social problems, including habitat destruction, prevention of fish passage, blockage of the movement of nutrients and sediment, degrading of aquifers, and displacement of communities. Of the 80,000 dams in existence, more than 26,000 are thought to be unsafe. Only about 1750 produce hydropower. Reservoirs behind big dams can be a source of methane emissions that can add to global warming, not reduce it. Evaporation from reservoirs represents water supply depletion from energy generation. In the west, drought due to climate change has caused reservoirs to fall to historically low water levels, threatening both power generation and water supply.

Despite these drawbacks, is there a place for “Low Impact Hydropower”? Is there a place for small-scale hydropower serving local communities?

How Hydroelectric Energy Works. “By taking advantage of the water cycle, we have tapped into one of nature’s engines to create a useful form of energy. In fact, humans have been using the energy in moving water for thousands of years. Today, exploiting the movement of water to generate electricity, known as hydroelectric power, is the largest source of renewable power in the United States and worldwide. Unfortunately, hydroelectricity has its drawbacks. By blocking rivers with massive dams, we have created a number of serious environmental and social problems, including habitat destruction, prevention of fish passage, and displacement of local communities. Still, if it’s done right, hydropower can be a sustainable and nonpolluting power source that can help decrease our dependence on fossil fuels and reduce the threat of global warming.” Substantive overview followed by 17 references with links. Union of Concerned Scientists, 2006. How Hydroelectric Energy Works.

Small Scale Hydro. “Small scale hydropower systems capture the energy in flowing water and convert it to usable energy. Although the potential for small hydro-electric systems depends on the availablity of suitable water flow, where the resource exists it can provide cheap clean reliable electricity. A well designed small hydropower system can blend with its surroundings and have minimal negative environmental impacts. Moreover, small hydropower has a huge, as yet untapped potential in most areas of the world and can make a significant contribution to future energy needs. It depends largely on already proven and developed technology, yet there is considerable scope for development and optimization of this technology.” International Energy Agency, Small Scale Hydro.

Micro Hydro Power: Pros and Cons. “Small-scale micro hydro power is both an efficient and reliable form of energy, most of the time. However, there are certain disadvantages that should be considered before constructing a small hydro power system. It is crucial to have a grasp of the potential energy benefits as well as the limitations of hydro technology. There are some common misconceptions about micro-hydro power that need to be addressed. With the right research and skills, micro hydro can be an excellent method of harnessing renewable energy from small streams.” Alternative Energy, 2006. Micro Hydro Power: Pros and Cons. 26 October 2006.

Hydropower Vulnerabilities and Climate Change: A Framework for Modeling the Future of Global Hydroelectric Resources. “The main purpose of this study is to assess how climate change will impact global hydroelectric production. This assessment was carried out through an extensive literature review that investigated current trends in hydropower as well climate change effects predicted to influence hydroelectric production. The summarized results of this literature review are provided by region in this report. Our research indicated that climate change effects, especially alterations in evaporation, river discharge, temporal precipitation patterns, frequency of extreme meteorological events, and glacial melt rate, have the potential to induce appreciable change, both positive and negative, in hydroelectric production in every part of the world.” Blackshear, B. et al. 2011. Hydropower Vulnerabilities and Climate Change: A Framework for Modeling the Future of Global Hydroelectric Resources. Middlebury College Environmental Studies Senior Seminar, Fall 2011.

Down ‘Deadbeat” Dames. “Of the more than 80,000 dams listed by the federal government, more than 26,000 pose high or significant safety hazards. Many no longer serve any real purpose. All have limited life spans. Only about 1,750 produce hydropower, according to the National Hydropower Association. In many cases, the benefits that dams have historically provided — for water use, flood control and electricity — can now be met more effectively without continuing to choke entire watersheds. Dams degrade water quality, block the movement of nutrients and sediment, destroy fish and wildlife habitats, damage coastal estuaries and in some cases rob surrounding forests of nitrogen. Reservoirs can also be significant sources of greenhouse gas emissions. Put simply, many dams have high environmental costs that outweigh their value. Removing them is the only sensible answer. And taking them down can often make economic sense as well. The River Alliance of Wisconsin estimates that removing dams in that state is three to five times less expensive than repairing them.” Yvon Chouinard is the founder of Patagonia and executive producer of the new documentary “DamNation.” Chouinard, Y. 2014. Tear Down ‘Deadbeat” Dames. New York Times, 7 May 2014.

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Renewable Energy Sources: Geothermal

Geothermal Energy. Concise overview of geothermal energy, both for residential/commercial applications and for generating electricity. Links to Geothermal Energy Technologies and Geothermal Energy News & Information, “Editor’s Picks” articles, and sites about other types of energy sources. RenewableEnergyWorld.com, 01 July 2014.

How Geothermal Works. Substantive, illustrated tutorial on geothermal energy, with numerous links to articles on this and other energy sources. Union of Concerned Scientists, 2009. How Geothermal Works. 16 December 2009.

Tapping the Earth’s Heat. Concise, but through overview of geothermal energy. Spectacular photo of geothermal plant in Iceland. National Geographic, Tapping the Earth’s Heat.

Iceland Looks to Export Power Bubbling From Below. Iceland, a volcanically active country, has an overabundance of geothermal energy. It is looking into the technological feasibility of exporting that energy to Europe. Higgins, A. 2013. Iceland Looks to Export Power Bubbling From Below. New York Times, 20 February 2013.

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Unconventional Energy Sources

New Desalination Technologies Spur Growth in Recycling Water. “Desalination has long been associated with one process — turning seawater into drinking water. But a host of new technologies are being developed that not only are improving traditional desalination but opening up new frontiers in reusing everything from agricultural water to industrial effluent…. With world water demands rising and extreme droughts like the one now gripping California expected to grow more frequent and widespread as the climate warms, drawing fresh water from oceans and other… sources will be increasingly important” Katz, C. 2014. New Desalination Technologies Spur Growth in Recycling Water. Yale environment 360, 03 June 2014.

Taking the Waste Out of Wastewater. “While we can’t “make” more water, there is one solution to water shortage problems that addresses issues of both quality and supply. Without mining an ancient aquifer, draining a natural spring or piping in the pricey harvest from a greenhouse-gas-and-brine-generating desalination plant, there is a solution to provide a valuable source of extremely pure water: reclaim it from sewage. The stuff from our showers, sinks and, yes, our toilets. In Israel, more than 80 percent of household wastewater is recycled, providing nearly half the water for irrigation…. it’s practical to turn wastewater into water that’s clean enough to drink.” Yu, J. 2012. Taking the Waste Out of Wastewater. New York Times, 21 April 2012.

As ‘Yuck Factor’ Subsides, Treated Wastewater Flows From Taps. “Almost hidden in the northern hills, the pilot water treatment plant here [San Diego] does not seem a harbinger of revolution. It cost $13 million, uses long-established technologies and produces a million gallons a day. But the plant’s very existence is a triumph over one of the most stubborn problems facing the nation’s water managers: if they make clean drinking water from wastewater, will the yuck factor keep people from accepting it?” Barringer, F. 2012. As ‘Yuck Factor’ Subsides, Treated Wastewater Flows From Taps. New York Times, 09 February 2012.

The Art of Water Recovery. “It’s vital to consider the impact [of leakage from water distribution systems] on energy use and the environment. Water is often lost between the main pipe and the customer, which means it has already been extracted, treated and transported a very long way. That’s expensive. All that energy is lost — and more has to be used — and that, of course, increases carbon emissions. California’s water system is already the state’s largest single energy user. At the same time, desalination plants are energy intensive. Electricity accounts for roughly half the cost of their water.” Bornstein, D. 2014. The Art of Water Recovery. New York Times, 10 July 2014.

Arizona Enlists a Beetle in Its Campaign for Water. “Farmers, ranchers and the water authorities here are eager to get rid of the tamarisk trees [along the Colorado River], which are not native to Arizona and which they say suck too much water. They have welcomed the beetles, which have made their way from Colorado and Utah over the last decade, and have watched with delight as the centimeter-long workhorses have damaged the trees by eating their spindly leaves. The hope is that the beetles will now rid Arizona of the trees…. But scientists say that nature is rarely a zero-sum game, and that removing the deep-rooted tamarisks … will not produce more water. New tamarisks or other trees will replace the fallen ones… and the birds that live in the tamarisks… will be harmed. Plus, once the beetles are done eating tamarisk leaves, they are likely to feed on other trees. Better to [replace] the tamarisk as a way to increase biodiversity, not save water….” Belson, K. 2014. Arizona Enlists a Beetle in Its Campaign for Water. New York Times, 14 July 2014.

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Unconventional Water Sources

New Desalination Technologies Spur Growth in Recycling Water. “Desalination has long been associated with one process — turning seawater into drinking water. But a host of new technologies are being developed that not only are improving traditional desalination but opening up new frontiers in reusing everything from agricultural water to industrial effluent…. With world water demands rising and extreme droughts like the one now gripping California expected to grow more frequent and widespread as the climate warms, drawing fresh water from oceans and other… sources will be increasingly important.” Katz, C. 2014. New Desalination Technologies Spur Growth in Recycling Water. Yale environment 360, 03 June 2014.

The Art of Water Recovery. “It’s vital to consider the impact [of leakage from water distribution systems] on energy use and the environment. Water is often lost between the main pipe and the customer, which means it has already been extracted, treated and transported a very long way. That’s expensive. All that energy is lost — and more has to be used — and that, of course, increases carbon emissions. California’s water system is already the state’s largest single energy user. At the same time, desalination plants are energy intensive. Electricity accounts for roughlyhalf the cost of their water.” Bornstein, D. 2014. The Art of Water Recovery. New York Times, 10 July 2014.

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Water Use in Energy Production

World Energy Outlook: Water for Energy. “Energy production depends on water. It is used in power generation, primarily for cooling thermal power plants; in the extraction, transport and processing of fuels; and, increasingly, in irrigation to grow biomass feedstock crops. Energy is also vital to providing freshwater, needed to power systems that collect, transport, distribute and treat it. Each resource faces rising demands and constraints in many regions as a consequence of economic and population growth and climate change, which will amplify their vulnerability to one another. For the energy sector, constraints on water can challenge the reliability of existing operations as well as the physical, economic and environmental viability of future projects. Water constraints can occur naturally, as in the case of droughts and heat waves, or be human-induced, as a result of growing competition among users or regulations that limit access to water. …. Equally important to water-related risks confronted by the energy sector, the use of water for energy production can impact freshwater resources, affecting both their availability… and quality….” International Energy Agency, 2014. World Energy Outlook: Water for Energy.

Water Impacts of the Electricity Sector. National Renewable Energy Laboratory PowerPoint presentation of consumption of water in the process of generating electricity. Macknick, J. 2012. Water Impacts of the Electricity Sector. American Solar Energy Society, World Renewable Energy Forum, 14 May 2012.

Water-Energy Connection. “The use of water and the use of energy are intricately intertwined. The extraction, treatment, distribution, and use of water followed by the collection and treatment of wastewater require a lot of energy; likewise, the production of energy—particularly hydroelectric and thermometric power generation— requires a lot of water.” Simple overview of the energy-water interdependency and relevance to climate change. Good collection of relevant links at the end. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012. Water-Energy Connection.

Water Consumption of Energy Resource Extraction, Processing, and Conversion [to electricity]. “This paper provides an overview of water consumption for different sources of energy, including extraction, processing, and conversion of resources, fuels, and technologies. The primary focus of this paper is to summarize the consumptive use of water for different sources of energy. Where appropriate, levels of water withdrawals are also discussed, especially in the context of cooling of thermoelectric power plants.” Extensive summary and link to full report. Mielke, E., L. Anadon, and V. Narayanamurti, 2010. Water Consumption of Energy Resource Extraction, Processing, and Conversion [to electricity]. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard University. October, 2010.

Freshwater Use by U.S. Power Plants: Electricity’s thirst for a precious resource. A comprehensive report on the stupendous amount of water withdrawn from waterways and aquifers and consumed in energy generation and the consequences. “In the short run, our choices for what kind of power plants we build can contribute to freshwater-supply stress… and can affect water quality…. Over a longer time frame, those choices can fuel climate change, whichin turn may also affect water quantity (through drought and other extreme weather events) and quality (by raisingthe temperature of lakes, streams, and rivers). Populationgrowth and rising demand for water also promise to worsenwater stress in many regions of the country already understress from power plant use and other uses.” Union of Concerned Scientists, 2011. Freshwater Use by U.S. Power Plants: Electricity’s thirst for a precious resource.

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Power Generation and the Electrical Grid

What is the electric power grid, and what are some of the challenges it faces? “The grid of electric power lines has evolved into three large interconnected systems that move electricity around the country. Standards have been developed by the electric power industry to ensure coordination for the linked operations. Challenges facing the power grid include getting approval for corridors of land for new transmission lines within states or that cross multiple states, and the financing and constructing of new transmission lines to assure continued reliability of our electricity supply…. [Also includes] Ensuring that the network of long-distance transmission lines reaches renewable sites where high-quality renewable resources are located, which are often distant from areas where demand for electricity is concentrated.” U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2012. What is the electric power grid, and what are some of the challenges it faces?

Climate Change Will Cause More Energy Breakdowns, U.S. Warns. “The nation’s entire energy system is vulnerable to increasingly severe and costly weather events driven by climate change, according to a report from the department of Energy….The blackouts and other energy disruptions of Hurricane Sandy were just a foretaste, the report says. Every corner of the country’s energy infrastructure — oil wells, hydroelectric dams, nuclear power plants — will be stressed in coming years by more intense storms, rising seas, higher temperatures and more frequent droughts. The effects are already being felt, the report says. Power plants are shutting down or reducing output because of a shortage of cooling water. Barges carrying coal and oil are being delayed by low water levels in major waterways. Floods and storm surges are inundating ports, refineries, pipelines and rail yards. Powerful windstorms and raging wildfires are felling transformers and transmission lines.” Broder, J. 2013. Climate Change Will Cause More Energy Breakdowns, U.S. Warns. New York Times, 11 July 2013.

Changing Times For Electrical Utilities. “Electrical utilities are facing the need for major changes in their traditional business model due to increased availability of renewable energy and energy efficiency, diminishing returns on economies of scale, new regulations for coal and nuclear plants, plentiful supplies of natural gas, and the need for—and high cost of—grid modernization.” Finnigan, J. 2014. Changing Times For Electrical Utilities. Forbes, 07 March.

Preparing for the Zombie Apocalypse: Are Microgrids Our Only Chance? “… while walking dead may never roam our streets, catastrophic events [cyber attacks, geomagnetic storms, severe weather] can debilitate localized or even regional populations…. [But] imagine you’re in a community with a microgrid that integrates renewable energy systems such as solar PV [photovoltaic] or wind, energy storage (e.g., batteries), and smart grid controls. What happens when people (but hopefully not you…) start turning into zombies? With the right combination assets, the community’s microgrid could run on its own for days, weeks, or possibly even years … all with technology that is commercially available today! In addition to electricity, if your community were to invest in electric vehicles… you’d also have mobility.” Guccione, L. and J. Sherwood, 2013. Preparing for the Zombie Apocalypse: Are Microgrids Our Only Chance? Rocky Mountain Instoitute, 11 July 2013.

Why the U.S. Power Grid’s Days Are Numbered. “There are 3,200 utilities that make up the U.S. electrical grid, the largest machine in the world. These power companies sell $400 billion worth of electricity a year, mostly derived from burning fossil fuels in centralized stations and distributed over 2.7 million miles of power lines. Regulators set rates; utilities get guaranteed returns; investors get sure-thing dividends. It’s a model that hasn’t changed much since Thomas Edison invented the light bulb. And it’s doomed to obsolescence….” Martin, C., M. Chediak, and K. Wells, 2013. Why the U.S. Power Grid’s Days Are Numbered. Bloomberg Businessweek, 22 August 2013.

Smart Meter Investments Benefit Rural Customers in Three Southern States. “… Smart Grid Investment Grant projects to modernize the electric grid, strengthen cybersecurity, improve interoperability, and collect an unprecedented level of data on improvements in grid operations and customer services…. Benefits from improvements in customer satisfaction and services include a popular “My Usage” web portal is helping customers to manage their consumption and costs, a pre-pay billing program is helping customers manage monthly bills and household budgets, and improved outage detection has reduced restoration times. Benefits from cost savings from operational improvements include reductions in meter operating costs….” Link to report. U.S. Department of Energy, Smartgrid.gov. Smart Meter Investments Benefit Rural Customers in Three Southern States.

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Sea Level

Borrowed Time on Disappearing Land. “… the most worrisome [effect of global warming] may be the melting of much of the earth’s ice, which is likely to raise sea levels and flood coastal regions. Such a rise will be uneven because of gravitational effects and human intervention, so predicting its outcome in any one place is difficult. But island nations like the Maldives, Kiribati and Fiji may lose much of their land area, and millions of Bangladeshis will be displaced.” Harris, G. 2014. Borrowed Time on Disappearing Land. New York Times, 28 March.

Rising Seas. Interactive article, well illustrated. “Some areas of the globe are especially vulnerable to rising sea levels. As land recedes under advancing waters, governments are faced with the costs of building defensive seawalls and relocating coastal populations — and in some extreme cases, finding new homes for entire island nations.” Davenport, C. 2013. Rising Seas. New York Times, Interactive article, well illustrated.

Rising Seas. Richly illustrated article. “A profoundly altered planetis what our fossil-fuel-driven civilization is creating, a planet where Sandy-scale flooding will become more common and more destructive for the world’s coastal cities. By releasing carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases into the atmosphere, we have warmed the Earth by more than a full degree Fahrenheit over the past century and raised sea level by about eight inches. Even if we stopped burning all fossil fuels tomorrow, the existing greenhouse gases would continue to warm the Earth for centuries. We have irreversibly committed future generations to a hotter world and rising seas.” Folger, T. 2014. Rising Seas. National Geographic, September, 2013.

A geological perspective on sea-level rise and its impacts along the U.S. mid-Atlantic coast. “Anthropogenic, climatically driven sea-level rise occurs in the context of geologically driven sea-level changes. An understanding of both anthropogenic and natural drivers is necessary to plan for coastal adaptation. As a case study, we evaluate past, present, and future relative sea-level changes on the U.S. mid-Atlantic coast (New York to Virginia…), providing insight into interactions among global average sea-level rise, subsidence induced by regional (thermoflexural and isostatic) and local (compaction) effects, and oceanographic (changes in dynamic height) processes…. An analysis of geological and historical sea-level records shows a significant rate of increase in sea-level rise since the nineteenth century. In New Jersey, it is extremely likely that sea-level rise in the twentieth century was faster than during any other century in the last 4.3 thousand years.” Miller, K.G., R.E. Kopp, B.P. Horton, J.V. Browning, and A.C. Kemp. 2013. A geological perspective on sea-level rise and its impacts along the U.S. mid-Atlantic coast. Earth’s Future, American Geophysical Union.

A geospatial dataset for U.S. hurricane storm surge and sea-level rise vulnerability: Development and case study applications. Climate Risk Management 2, 26-41, 2014. Many more energy facilities and housing units will be exposed to hurricane storm surges by 2100. By 2100, the number of energy facilities exposed to hurricane storm surges in the Southeast is expected to rise 6 to 69 percent, putting a range of 69 to 291 additional energy facilities at-risk, depending on the sea level rise scenario. The number of housing units exposed to hurricane storm surges in the same region is expected to rise by 83 to 230 percent. Much of the increase in housing exposure by 2100 is due to current plans to develop in areas vulnerable to future storm surge inundation. Maloney, M. and B. Preston, 2014. A geospatial dataset for U.S. hurricane storm surge and sea-level rise vulnerability: Development and case study applications. Climate Risk Management 2, 26-41, 2014.

Sea Level Rise Accelerating Faster than Initial Projections. “Sea level is rising as the planet warms up, but how much it will rise, and how fast is still something climate scientists are working out. And according to [a recent study] the ocean is already rising faster than the most recent authoritative report from the U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.” Lemonick, M. 2012. Sea Level Rise Accelerating Faster than Initial Projections. Climate Central, 27 November 2012.

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Economic Impacts

MIT Climate Scientist Responds on Disaster Costs and Climate Change. Counterarguments to assertion that increased economic risk from hurricanes is unrelated to climate change. Emanuel, K. 2014. MIT Climate Scientist Responds on Disaster Costs and Climate Change.

Why a Melting Arctic Could Sink the Global Economy. “[The]effects of a warming Arctic not only directly threaten the health, safety, and prosperity of the 4 million people who live in the High North—but they also have tremendous economic, environmental, and security implications for the United States and the rest of the world. As Arctic sea ice vanishes, companies and countries are scurrying to set in motion plans to exploit natural resources in the region, including through oil and gas development, commercial fishing, and trade via new shipping routes.” Kelly, C. 2014. Why a Melting Arctic Could Sink the Global Economy. Center for American Progress, 19 March.

Bipartisan Report Tallies High Toll on Economy From Global Warming. “More than a million homes and businesses along the nation’s coasts could flood repeatedly before ultimately being destroyed. Entire states in the Southeast and the Corn Belt may lose much of their agriculture as farming shifts northward in a warming world. Heat and humidity will probably grow so intense that spending time outside will become physically dangerous, throwing industries like construction and tourism into turmoil. That is a picture of what may happen to the United States economy in a world of unchecked global warming, according to a major new report released Tuesday by a coalition of senior political and economic figures from the left, right and center, including three Treasury secretaries stretching back to the Nixon administration.” Gillis, J. 2014. Bipartisan Report Tallies High Toll on Economy From Global Warming. New York Times, 24 June 2014.

Reinventing Fire. “Reinventing Fire maps pathways for running a 158%-bigger U.S. economy in 2050 but needing no oil, no coal, and no nuclear energy…. Digging up and burning the deposits of ancient sunlight stored eons ago in primeval swamps has transformed human existence and made industrial and urban civilization possible [but] are no longer the only, best, or even cheapest way to sustain and expand the global economy—whether or not we count fossil fuels’ hidden costs…. the biggest hidden costs [being] economic and military.” Rocky Mountain Institute, 1990-2014. Reinventing Fire.

A Price Tag on Carbon as a Climate Rescue Plan. “California’s [cap and trade] program is the latest incarnation of an increasingly popular — and much debated — mechanism that has emerged as one of the primary weapons against global warming. From China to Norway, Kazakhstan to the Northeastern United States, governments are requiring industries to buy permits allowing them to emit set levels of greenhouse gases. Under these plans, the allowable levels of pollution are steadily reduced and the cost of permits rises, creating an economic incentive for companies to cut emissions. The system encourages companies to find the least expensive ways to make the cuts, either by adopting cleaner energy technology or by investing in outside emission-control projects…” Gillis, J. 2014. A Price Tag on Carbon as a Climate Rescue Plan, New York Times, 30 May 2014.

Also see: Room for Debate: Can the Market Stave Off Global Warming? New York Times, 2014. Room for Debate: Can the Market Stave Off Global Warming?

Cap and Fade. “There is a better alternative [to cap and trade], one that would be more efficient and less costly than cap and trade: ‘fee and dividend.’ Under this approach, a gradually rising carbon fee would be collected at the mine or port of entry for each fossil fuel (coal, oil and gas). The fee would be uniform, a certain number of dollars per ton of carbon dioxide in the fuel. The public would not directly pay any fee, but the price of goods would rise in proportion to how much carbon-emitting fuel is used in their production. All of the collected fees would then be distributed to the public. Prudent people would use their dividend wisely, adjusting their lifestyle, choice of vehicle and so on. Those who do better than average in choosing less-polluting goods would receive more in the dividend than they pay in added costs.” Hanson, J. 2009. Cap and Fade. New York Times, 6 December 2009.

Why is renewable energy so expensive? “Most people agree that carbon emissions from power stations are a significant cause of climate change. These days a fiercer argument is over what to do about it. Many governments are pumping money into renewable sources of electricity, such as wind turbines, solar farms, hydroelectric and geothermal plants. But countries with large amounts of renewable generation, such as Denmark and Germany, face the highest energy prices in the rich world. In Britain electricity from wind farms costs twice as much as that from traditional sources; solar power is even more dear. What makes it so costly?” The Economist, 2014. Why is renewable energy so expensive? 5 January 2014.

The Coming Climate Crash: Lessons for Climate Change in the 2008 Recession. “The solution [to the problem of economic impacts of climate change] can be a fundamentally conservative one that will empower the marketplace to find the most efficient response. We can do this by putting a price on emissions of carbon dioxide — a carbon tax. Few in the United States now pay to emit this potent greenhouse gas into the atmosphere we all share. Putting a price on emissions will create incentives to develop new, cleaner energy technologies…. A tax on carbon emissions will unleash a wave of innovation to develop technologies, lower the costs of clean energy and create jobs as we and other nations develop new energy products and infrastructure. This would strengthen national security….” Paulson, H. 2014. The Coming Climate Crash: Lessons for Climate Change in the 2008 Recession. New York Times, 21 June 2014.

New Study Adds Up the benefits of Climate-smart development in Lives, Jobs, and GDP. The report shows that fighting climate change would help the world economy add between $1.8 trillion and $2.6 trillion a year to global gross domestic product (GDP) in the coming decades…. [E]conomists focused on the specific policies in six leading regions in the world economy and global emissions–Brazil, China, the European Union, India, Mexico, and the United States. The annual benefits of these pro-climate policies are about 1.5 percent higher than under a business as usual scenario [and] these policies can help avoid 94,000 deaths a year due to air pollution. World Bank, 2014. New Study Adds Up the benefits of Climate-smart development in Lives, Jobs, and GDP. 23 June 2014.

Risky Business: The Economic Risks of Climate Change in the United States. “The U.S. economy faces significant risks from unmitigated climate change. The Risky Business report presents a new approach to understanding these risks for key U.S. business sectors, and provides business leaders with a framework for measuring and mitigating their own exposure to climate risk.”Bloomberg, M., H. Paulson, et al. 2014. Risky Business: The Economic Risks of Climate Change in the United States.

American Climate Prospectus: Economic Risks in the United States. “The United States faces a range of economic risks from global climate change — from increased flooding and storm damage, to climate-driven changes in crop yields and labor productivity, to heat-related strains on energy and public health systems. [This report, commissioned by the Risky Business Project (reference above)] provides a groundbreaking new analysis of these and other climate risks by region of the country and sector of the economy. By linking state-of-the-art climate models with econometric research of human responses to climate variability and cutting edge private sector risk assessment tools, the ACP offers decision-makers a data driven assessment of the specific risks they face.” Houser, T. et al. 2014. American Climate Prospectus: Economic Risks in the United States.

The Cost of Delaying Action To Stem Climate Change. “There is a vigorous public debate over whether to act now to stem climate change or instead to delay implementing mitigation policies until a future date. This report examines the economic consequences of delaying implementing such policies and reaches two main conclusions, both of which point to the benefits of implementing mitigation policies now and to the net costs of delaying taking such actions…. although delaying action can reduce costs in the short run, on net, delaying action to limit the effects of climate change is costly…. These costs will take the form of either greater damages from climate change or higher costs associated with implementing more rapid reductions in greenhouse gas emissions…. These costs can be large…. climate policy can be thought of as “climate insurance” taken out against the most severe and irreversible potential consequences of climate change [which] could pose such severe economic consequences as reasonably to be thought of as climate catastrophes.” The White House, 2104. The Cost of Delaying Action To Stem Climate Change. July, 2014.

2014 NHL Sustainability Report. The report evaluates the carbon footprint of NHL activities and explores strategies to increase the league’s sustainability. The sport of hockey is particularly impacted by climate change: increasing average world temperatures and fresh water depletion. Carbon dioxide emissions by NHL activity in the 2012-2013 season were 380,342 metric tons of CO2. NHL aims to cut emissions by installing more efficient lighting and equipment and deploying solar power and other renewable energy sources. National Hockey League. 2014 NHL Sustainability Report.

Shattering Myths to Help the Climate. “Effective countermeasures now could actually ward off many of these threats [due to climate change] at relatively modest cost….Why aren’t we demanding more forceful action? One reason may be the frequent incantation of a motley collection of myths, each one rooted in bad economics….” Article proceeds to de-bunk six such myths. Frank, R. 2014. Shattering Myths to Help the Climate.

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The Insurance Sector

Insurance Companies Face Increased Risks from Warming. “Insurers are central to how we deal, or don’t deal, with climate change. They price the risk facing property owners, and others, from weather events effectively sending a signal to the rest of the economy about how seriously to take the threat. And with $23 trillion in global investments, insurers are also systemically important. If these companies fail to properly account for the risks they face from climate change, they could become financially vulnerable, with serious repercussions for the global economy.” Schiller, B. 2012. Insurance Companies Face Increased Risks from Warming. Yale environment 360, 23 April 2012.

Mutually Insured Destruction. “As the global average temperature rises, it alters weather systems, changing patterns of heat and cold and shifting wind currents. Risk is redistributed along with them. No one understands risk better than the insurance industry — except, perhaps, the reinsurance industry, the companies that sell insurance to insurers, which also need protection from risk exposure. As the risk managers for the risk managers, reinsurers follow climate change obsessively. A great deal of money is at stake.” Koerth-Baker, M. 2013. Mutually Insured Destruction. New York Times, 27 August 2013.

North America most affected by increase in weather-related natural catastrophes. “[A Munich Re] study was prepared in order to support underwriters and clients in North America, the world’s largest insurance and reinsurance market…. The North American continent is exposed to every type of hazardous weather peril – tropical cyclone, thunderstorm, winter storm, tornado, wildfire, drought and flood…. Anthropogenic climate change is believed to contribute to this trend, though it influences various perils in different ways. Climate change particularly affects formation of heat-waves, droughts, intense precipitation events, and in the long run most probably also tropical cyclone intensity. The view that weather extremes are becoming more frequent and intense in various regions due to global warming is in keeping with current scientific findings…. Up to now, however, the increasing losses caused by weather related natural catastrophes have been primarily driven by socio-economic factors, such as population growth, urban sprawl and increasing wealth. Among many other risk insights the study now provides new evidence for the emerging impact of climate change….” Munich Re, 2012. North America most affected by increase in weather-related natural catastrophes. 17 October 2012.

Insurers See Growing Risks and Costs From Climate Change. “Property and casualty insurers in the United States experienced an extraordinary estimated $44 billion in losses last year when hurricanes, droughts, tornadoes and other natural disasters were more severe, longer, more frequent and less predictable than in the past. ‘From our industry’s perspective, the footprints of climate change are around us and the trend of increasing damage to property and threat to lives is clear,’ said Franklin Nutter, president of the Reinsurance Association of America.” Federal Information & News Dispatch, Inc., 2010. Insurers See Growing Risks and Costs From Climate Change. insurancenewsnet.com

Insurers sue Chicage-area towns in bid to get flood money. “They say municipalities should’ve done more against flooding…. Farmers [Insurance group] asserts that flooding is no act of God. Filed as another spring rainy season commences, the lawsuits also make the novel argument that global warming will make such problems more common and government should be doing more to plan for that.” McCoppin, R., L. Black, and D. Hinkel, 2014. Insurers sue Chicage-area towns in bid to get flood money.

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The Nexus and Ecosystems

Why Bark Beetles are Chewing Through U.S. Forests. “The conifer forests of the North American west have been under a massive assault over the past decade by bark beetles: one species alone, the mountain pine beetle, has killed more than 70,000 square miles worth of trees, equivalent to the area of Washington State, and two recent studies have shed some light on how climate change is helping fuel the assault, and what’s likely to happen in a world that continues to warm…. the beetles, whose numbers would normally be held in check by cold winters that kill their larvae, are surviving in greater numbers from one year to the next as winters in the U.S. continue to get warmer.” The enormous stands of dead trees make the forests much more vulnerable to forest fires. Lemonick, M. 2013. Why Bark Beetles are Chewing Through U.S. Forests. Climate Central, 07 January 2013.

What is Ocean Acidification? “Ocean acidification is expected to impact ocean species to varying degrees. Photosynthetic algae and seagrasses may benefit from higher CO2conditions in the ocean, as they require CO2to live just like plants on land. On the other hand, studies have shown that a more acidic environment has a dramatic effect on some calcifying species, including oysters, clams, sea urchins, shallow water corals, deep sea corals, and calcareous plankton. When shelled organisms are at risk, the entire food web may also be at risk. Today, more than a billion people worldwide rely on food from the ocean as their primary source of protein. Many jobs and economies in the U.S. and around the world depend on the fish and shellfish in our oceans.” U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. What is Ocean Acidification?

Changing ecosystem concerns fishermen. “Humans are dumping so much carbon dioxide into the oceans so fast that seawater — even in the Gulf of Maine — is getting warmer and more acidic, according to marine and climate researchers. Scientists aren’t sure yet how the trend, which is believed to be tied to human-induced climate change, will affect ocean life in the gulf. But there is rising concern — especially among fishermen — that changes in the ocean ecosystem could severely damage some of the fisheries that are the backbone of the region’s seafood industry. The effects of warming and acidification are showing up all over the world, including in and along the gulf.” Cairn, N. 2013. Changing ecosystem concerns fishermen. Portland Press Herald. 09 March 2013.

Springing Forward, and Its Consequences. “[A pattern seen] at Walden Pond is part of a grand, planet-wide march. Many studies — based both on observations in the field and on satellite images taken from space — indicate that spring is shifting earlier. The changing spring is one of the most striking impacts attributed to global warming….. In the coming decades, carbon dioxide levels are expected to rise still more, driving up the planet’s average temperature. Spring will probably continue to advance, and some plants will grow longer into autumn…. the changing flowering times of plants may disrupt their pollination. Some species may end up competing with each other for visits from pollinating bees.” Zimmer, C. 2014. Springing Forward, and Its Consequences, New York Times, 23 April 2014.

In New Jersey Pines, Trouble Arrives on Six Legs. “In an infestation that scientists say is almost certainly a consequence of global warming, the southern pine beetle is spreading through New Jersey’s famous Pinelands. It tried to do so many times in the past, but bitterly cold winters would always kill it off. Now, scientists say, the winters are no longer cold enough. The tiny insect, firmly entrenched, has already killed tens of thousands of acres of pines, and it is marching northward. Scientists say it is a striking example of the way seemingly small climatic changes are disturbing the balance of nature. They see these changes as a warning of the costly impact that is likely to come with continued high emissions of greenhouse gases.” Gillis,, J. 2013. In New Jersey Pines, Trouble Arrives on Six Legs. New York Times, 1 December 2013.

A Disappearing Planet. Comprehensive graphical display of species extinctions. “Animal species are going extinct anywhere from 100 to 1,000 times the rates that would be expected under natural conditions. According to Elizabeth Kolbert’s ‘The Sixth Extinction’ and other recent studies, the increase results from a variety of human-caused effects including climate change, habitat destruction, and species displacement. Today’s extinction rates rival those during the mass extinction event that wiped out the dinosaurs 65 million years ago.” Flagg, A. 2014. A Disappearing Planet. Pro Publica, 03 July 2014.

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The Nexus in Relation to Human Health

Climate-change effects on malaria risk identified. “A new study suggests that climate change, driven by greenhouse-gas emissions and land-use changes, will cause patterns of malaria infection to change over the next 50 years.” Walker, A. 2012. Climate-change effects on malaria risk identified. Planet earth Online, 03 February 2012.

Climate Change: The View from the Patio. “Scientists had some sobering news last week about the potential impact of climate change, and it didn’t come from the foot of a shrinking glacier in Alaska or the shores of a tropical resort where the rising ocean is threatening the beachfront bar. It came from a North Carolina forest, at an experimental plot where scientists can precisely control the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air. Duke researchers discovered that when exposed to higher levels of CO2, the greenhouse gas released in ever-increasing quantities from human activity, poison ivy goes haywire. The researchers found that the weedlike plant grew much faster under CO2 conditions similar to those projected for the middle of the century. The plant also produced a more noxious form of its rash-causing chemical: a more poisonous poison ivy.” Fountain, H. 2006. Climate Change: The View from the Patio. New York Times, 04 June 2006.

Rise of Pests and Diseases in United States Linked to Warmer Winters. “The long, mild winter, coupled with record-breaking heat and drought that struck the United States this year, coincided with rises in pests and disease outbreaks. West Nile, a virus carried by culex mosquitoes that flourish in warm, wet climates, reached 48 states causing 3,545 reported illnesses and 147 deaths. Scientists discovered that culex mosquitoes not only proliferate more rapidly in warmer weather, but also bite more often. Hantavirus, transmitted by rodent waste, is also being accelerated by warmer temperatures. Rodents that previously fell victim to cold winters out west are now able to survive mild winters, creating a population boom during summer months when mice look for food and homes, often in close proximity to humans….” Environmental and Energy Study Institute, Rise of Pests and Diseases in United States Linked to Warmer Winters, Climate Change News, 08 October 2012.

Protecting health from climate change. Connecting science, policy, and people. “… presents an overview of the science of the links between climate change and human health. It provides an update of the evidence on health risks caused by climate change, describes which populations are most vulnerable, and outlines the actions that will be necessary to protect health from climate change.” World Health Organization, 2009. Protecting health from climate change. Connecting science, policy, and people. 36 pp.

Infectious Disease Could Become More Common in a Warming World–Especially for Plant and Animals. “Climate change will make it easier for many infectious diseases to spread. Human beings will be able to adapt — or at least the richer ones will. But biodiversity will suffer as parasites and bacteria find a more welcoming environment.” Walsh, B. 2013. Infectious Disease Could Become More Common in a Warming World–Especially for Plant and Animals. Time, 02 August 2013.

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The Nexus and National Security

Lessons From the Little Ice Age. “There are two ways to consider the impact of climate change. We can predict the future based on current trends or we can study a well-documented episode of the past. What happened in the 17th century suggests that altered weather conditions can have catastrophic political and social consequences. Today, the nation’s intelligence agencies have warned of similar repercussions as the planet warms — including more frequent but unpredictable crises involving water, food, energy supply chains and public health. States could fail, famine could overtake large populations and flood or disease could cross borders and lead to internal instability or international conflict.” Parker, G. 2014. Lessons From the Little Ice Age. New York Times, 22 March.

Climate Change Deemed Growing Security Threat by Military Researchers. “The CNA Corporation Military Advisory Board found that climate change-induced drought in the Middle East and Africa is leading to conflicts over food and water and escalating longstanding regional and ethnic tensions into violent clashes. The report also found that rising sea levels are putting people and food supplies in vulnerable coastal regions like eastern India, Bangladesh and the Mekong Delta in Vietnam at risk and could lead to a new wave of refugees. In addition, the report predicted that an increase in catastrophic weather events around the world will create more demand for American troops, even as flooding and extreme weather events at home could damage naval ports and military bases.” Davenport, C. 2014. Climate Change Deemed Growing Security Threat by Military Researchers, New York Times, 13 may 2014.

Climate and Social Stress: Implications for Security Analysis. “The U.S. intelligence community is expected to provide indicators and warnings of a wide variety of security threats—not only risks of international wars that might threaten U.S. interests or require a U.S. military response, but also risks of violent subnational conflicts in countries of security concern, risks to the stability of states and regions, and risks of major humanitarian disasters in key regions of the world. This intelligence mission requires the consideration of activities and processes anywhere in the world that might lead, directly or indirectly, to significant risks to U.S. national security…. with the accumulation of scientific evidence indicating that the global climate is moving outside the bounds of past experience and can be expected to put new stresses on societies around the world, the U.S. intelligence and security communities have begun to examine a variety of plausible scenarios through which climate change might pose or alter security risks.” Steinbruner, j. P. Stern, and J. Husbands, eds. 2012. Climate and Social Stress: Implications for Security Analysis. National Academies Press, 280 pp.

Climate Change Adaptation: DoD Can Improve Infrastructure Planning and Processes to Better Account for Potential Impacts. “… the Department of Defense (DOD) identified climate change phenomena such as rising temperatures and sea levels as potentially impacting its infrastructure…. For example, … the combination of thawing permafrost, decreasing sea ice, and rising sea levels on the Alaskan coast has increased coastal erosion at several Air Force radar early warning and communication installations . Impacts on DOD’s infrastructure from this erosion have included damaged roads, seawalls, and runways…. sea level rise and resulting storm surge are the two largest threats to… waterfront infrastructure…DOD has begun to assess installations’ vulnerability to potential climate change impacts and directed its planners to incorporate consideration of climate change…. it is a DOD strategic goal to consider sustainability , including climate change adaptation, in its facility investment decisions.” United State Government Accountability Office, 2014. Climate Change Adaptation: DoD Can Improve Infrastructure Planning and Processes to Better Account for Potential Impacts. GAO-14-446, May, 2014.

Global Water Security. “During the next 10 years, many countries important to the United States will experience water problems—shortages, poor water quality, or floods—that will risk instability and state failure, increase regional tensions, and distract them from working with the United States on important US policy objectives. Between now and 2040, fresh water availability will not keep up with demand absent more effective management of water resources. Water problems will hinder the ability of key countries to produce food and generate energy, posing a risk to global food markets and hobbling economic growth. As a result of demographic and economic development pressures, North Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia will face major challenges coping with water problems.” U.S. Office of the Director of National Intelligence, 2012. Global Water Security.

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Geoengineering the Planet

Starting from the position that dire consequences awaiting the human population due to climate change will not be avoided by human actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, one can construct arguments in favor of a wide variety of “geoengineering” solutions; desperate measures are in order. Spraying sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere could have a cooling effect, much as with volcanic eruptions. General circulation models indicate that this would work. Engineering studies have indicated the feasibility of placing giant reflectors in space around the Earth as another kind of solar shield. Ocean fertilization with iron or phosphate could increase plankton blooms that would soak up CO2. Demonstration projects have shown the feasibility of injecting CO2 into reservoirs under ground. Better farming practices and intensive forestry could lead to increased sequestration of carbon.

But there are a number of lines of counterarguments. Sulfur seeded to the atmosphere would fall out quickly, so injection would have to continue for centuries; if discontinued, global warming would return to its current trajectory within a few years, with drastic effects. Costs of physical solar shields are highly uncertain. Almost any strategy could have severe unintended consequences: Solar shield solutions would change climate patterns globally; seeding the ocean would impact ecological systems in unforeseeable ways. Injection of CO2 into the Earth requires just the right geologic reservoirs and cost analyses indicate that it would be prohibitively expensive. And there are ethical arguments: who gets to decide on a course of action on behalf of the entire global population, especially in the face of uncertain consequences?

The Climate Fixers: Is there a technological solution to global warming? “Geoengineering holds out the promise of artificially reversing recent climate trends, but it entails enormous risks.” Spector, M. 2012. The Climate Fixers: Is there a technological solution to global warming? The New Yorker, 14 May 2012.

Geoengineering: Our Last Hope or a False Promise? “Relentlessly rising greenhouse-gas emissions, and the fear that the earth might enter a climate emergency from which there would be no return, have prompted many climate scientists to conclude that we urgently need a Plan B: geoengineering. Geoengineering — the deliberate, large-scale intervention in the climate system to counter global warming or offset some of its effects — may enable humanity to mobilize its technological power to seize control of the planet’s climate system, and regulate it in perpetuity. But is it wise to try to play God with the climate? For all its allure, a geoengineered Plan B may lead us into an impossible morass.” Hamilton, C. 2013. Geoengineering: Our Last Hope or a False Promise? New York Times, 26 May 2013.

Geo-engineering and climate change: Stopping a scorcher. Overview of differing perspectives on the controversial subject of geoengineering in the context of a review of books on the subject by Clive Hamilton and David Keith. Geo-engineering and climate change: Stopping a scorcher. The Economist, 23 November, 2013.

A combined mitigation/geoengineering approach to climate stabilization. “The geoengineering strategy examined here is the injection of aerosol or aerosol precursors such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the stratosphere to provide a negative forcing of the climate system and consequently offset part of the positive forcing due to increasing greenhouse gas concentrations. Volcanic eruptions provide ideal experiments that can be used to assess the effects of large anthropogenic emissions of SO2on stratospheric aerosols and climate. We know, for example, that the Mount Pinatubo eruption of June 1991 caused detectable short-term cooling, but did not seriously disrupt the climate system. Deliberately adding aerosols or aerosol precursors to the stratosphere, so that the loading is similar to the maximum loading from the Mount Pinatubo eruption, should therefore present minimal climate risks.” Wigley, T. 2006. A combined mitigation/geoengineering approach to climate stabilization. Science, 20 October 2006.

Taskforce on Climate Remediation Research. “This report presents the conclusions of the Task Force on Climate Remediation Research, which was convened by the nonprofit Bipartisan Policy Center in March 2010 to develop recommendations for the U.S. government concerning geoengineering research and oversight policy. Participants included leaders from the scientific, science policy, foreign policy, national security, legal, and environmental communities who together brought a wide range of perspectives and expertise to the task force.” Taskforce on Climate Remediation Research. 2011. Bipartisan Policy Center.

What is CO2 Sequestration? “Carbon sequestration means capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere or capturing anthropogenic (human) CO2from large-scale stationary sources like power plants before it is released to the atmosphere. Once captured, the CO2gas (or the carbon portion of the CO2) is put into long-term storage.CO2sequestration has the potential to significantly reduce the level of carbon that occurs in the atmosphere as CO2and to reduce the release of CO2to the atmosphere from major stationary human sources, including power plants and refineries.” Includes links to other articles on this topic. Energy and Environmental Research Center, 2014. What is CO2 Sequestration?

Agriculture, Climate Change, and Carbon Sequestration. “Carbon sequestration and reductions in greenhouse gas emissions can occur through a variety of agriculture practices. This publication provides an overview of the relationship between agriculture, climate change and carbon sequestration. It also investigates possible options for farmers and ranchers to have a positive impact on the changing climate and presents opportunities for becoming involved in the emerging carbon market.” J. Schahczenski and H. Hill, 2009. Agriculture, Climate Change, and Carbon Sequestration. National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service.

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Communities, Buildings, and Households

Community Energy. “Historically, most energy used in the United States has been collected and delivered through centralized facilities, owned and operated by large companies and utilities. The primary energy source itself—be it coal, natural gas, oil, or uranium—typically originates far from where it is used. Energy efficiency and renewable energy, however, provide an opportunity for energy to be “produced” closer to end-users. Developing local energy resources may also involve large commercial enterprises (e.g. investor-owned wind farms) or actions by individual households and businesses (e.g. weatherizing one’s home, installing solar panels on an office building). There are, however, a wide variety of collective and community-scale approaches that allow local energy users to share the benefits of developing local energy resources. These collective efforts—to help local communities move from importing energy to producing their own energy—are what we call ‘community energy’.” Environmental and Energy Study Institute, Community Energy.

Rocky Mountain Institute Offer Road Map for Energy Use. “In an effort to advance the next generation of energy management, CoreNet Global and the Rocky Mountain Institute have released a new framework for corporations, owners, tenants and property managers…. The report identifies nine key factors that enable and necessitate next-generation energy management. Those elements consist of reductions in energy costs, such as natural gas; sustainability measurement; stakeholder demand for sustainability; availability of capital; risk mitigation and management; workplace transformation; smart building technology; healthy buildings and electricity grid evolution.” Loria, K. 2014. CoreNet Global, Rocky Mountain Institute Offer Road Map for Energy Use. Commercial Property Executive, 02 May 2014.

It Takes a Village: Moving beyond net-zero buildings to net-zero districts and communities. “While the promise of net-zero communities is alluring, challenges remain. It may be easier in theory to design a net-zero district or community than to try to meet such a standard for each building individually, but it’s not always possible. Existing electric utility regulations, for example, typically forbid neighbors from exchanging energy among themselves, blocking integrated community microgrid solutions that could offer a net-zero pathway. Yet RMI’s Electricity Innovation Lab (e-Lab) is working on that problem and others. In the end, opening the door to net-zero-energy communities could be a powerful way to enable the transition to a cleaner and more secure energy future.” Newcomb, J. and R. Hutchinson, 2014. It Takes a Village: Moving beyond net-zero buildings to net-zero districts and communities. Rocky Mountain Institute, Solutions Journal, Winter, 2014.

Why Owning Your Own Power Plant Might Not Be Crazy. “… off-grid solar-plus-battery systems could reach economic parity with retail electric service. These systems could become competitive with retail electric service within the next decade for many commercial customers and for many residential customers in the decade thereafter…. it’s not that far-fetched to imagine a day when large segments of customers choose to go mostly or even entirely off-grid with clean, quiet, distributed solar-plus-battery systems. In fact, could owning your own power plant become as convenient and practical—if not quite as ubiquitous—as the consumer appliances and electronics already so commonplace that we take them for granted in our daily lives—a refrigerator, a clothes dryer, or a computer?” Guccione, L. 2014. Why Owning Your Own Power Plant Might Not Be Crazy. Could a “personal Power Plant” be your next major home appliance? RMI Outlet, 22 May 2014.

Start Small and Think Long-Term: Saving Energy. “Every building is different, and predicting the return on an investment in efficiency can be tricky. Older buildings are not necessarily bigger energy hogs than their newer neighbors, and some buildings that went up in the last 10 years should be ashamed. But the size and age of a structure can tell an expert where to start looking for savings…. To find out where energy savings might be found in your building, an energy audit is in order. These are available from private consultants or utility companies….” Harris, E. 2009. Start Small and Think Long-Term: Saving Energy. New York Times, 22 November 2009.

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The Nexus in Food, Population, and Social Unrest

A 200-Year-Old Forecast for Food Scarcity May Yet Come True. “… what most stood out in the report from the [United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]… was that it [provided] its starkest warning yet about the challenge imposed by global warming on the world’s food supply…. More volatile weather patterns promise to bring sharp disruptions to agricultural production that can cause spikes in food prices….’There is a rigorous correlation between food price spikes and urban unrest….And there’s a relatively clear line that leads from the food price spike in 2010 to unrest in the Middle East and the Arab Spring.'” Porter, E. 2014. A 200-Year-Old Forecast for Food Scarcity May Yet Come True. New York Times, 1 April.

The Scary Hidden Stressor. Discussion of the study, “The Arab Spring and Climate Change”, that makes the case for climate change [and resulting drought] as a “stressor” that can trigger social unrest because of resulting food shortages and price increases. Friedman, T. 2013. The Scary Hidden Stressor. New York Times, 2 March.

Hunger Seen Worsening by Oxfam as Climate Change Heats Up World. An Oxfam report describes the connection between climate change and rising world hunger. The 4 degree Celsius warming that is predicted by mid-century under “business as usual” emission scenarios will lead to a cascade of events that will impact food security. Increases in extreme weather such as droughts and floods will lead to crop loss, damage food distribution systems, and affect water supplies. The worst effects to food security will be felt by developing nations in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in Africa and Southeast Asia. Crop yields in those areas may fall as much as 20 percent in the next 40 years. Ruitenberg, R. 2013. Hunger Seen Worsening by Oxfam as Climate Change Heats Up World. Bloomberg, 22 September 2013.

How Weeds Could Help Feed Billions in a Warming World. “Scientists in the U.S. and elsewhere are conducting intensive experiments to cross hardy weeds with food crops such as rice and wheat. Their goal is to make these staples more resilient as higher temperatures, drought, and elevated CO2 levels pose new threats to the world’s food supply.” Palmer, L. 2014. How Weeds Could Help Feed Billions in a Warming World. Yale environment 360, 05 June 2014.

Where Will Earth Head After Its “Climate Departure”? “Will the planet reach a point where its climate is significantly different from what has existed throughout human history, and if so, when? In an interview with Yale Environment 360, biogeographer Camilo Mora talks about recent research on this disquieting issue and what it means for the coming decades…. ‘It’s scary to think about climate change because when we start damaging physical systems and the carrying capacity of physical systems to produce food, people will react to this in a terrible way. I’m telling you, I have seen it in my own country. It’s very negative the way in which people react to hunger. And that’s one of the things that’s most frightening to me with this large-scale analysis — the fact that I know we’re on our way to some very disturbing scenarios if we go down this pathway of damaging physical systems in the ways that we are today.'” Toomey, D. 2014. Where Will Earth Head After Its “Climate Departure”? Yale environment 360, 02 July 2014.

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Climate Change-Lessons From the Past

The First Cold War: The Environmental Lessons of the Little Ice Age. [Review of Global Crisis: War, Climate Change, and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century. By Geoffrey Parker.] “A wealth of scientific evidence shows that the seventeenth century was one of the more extreme periods in an era of global cooling that stretched from the fourteenth to the nineteenth century. Thanks to the telescopes that came into use around 1600, sunspot records indicate a low point in solar activity in the latter half of the seventeenth century. Following relatively mild conditions in the 1500s, the chill took seventeenth-century observers by surprise….. Rivers that were usually navigable in winter froze solid, and the long winters were immortalized in the landscape paintings of the Dutch Golden Age. Seventeenth-century accounts of droughts, floods, insect infestations, famines, and epidemics trace the far-reaching effects of climate change. These scourges struck repeatedly and across vast regions, contributing to an estimated loss of one-third of the world’s population. Parker’s book captures this century of upheaval in a political, economic, and cultural history of dozens of early modern states.” Coen, D. 2014. The First Cold War: The Environmental Lessons of the Little Ice Age. Foreign Affairs, March/April 2014.

Climate Change Doomed the Ancients. “… climate change has been leading to global conflict — and even the collapse of civilizations — for more than 3,000 years. Drought and famine led to internal rebellions in some societies and the sacking of others, as people fleeing hardship at home became conquerors abroad. One of the most vivid examples comes from around 1200 B.C. A centuries-long drought in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean regions, contributed to — if not caused — widespread famine, unrest and ultimately the destruction of many once prosperous cities, according to four recent studies. The scientists determined the length and severity of the drought by examining ancient pollen as well as oxygen and carbon isotope data drawn from alluvial and mineral deposits. All of their conclusions are corroborated by correspondence, inscribed and fired on clay tablets, dating from that time.” Cline, E. 2014. Climate Change Doomed the Ancients. New York Times, 27 May 2014.

Political Strife Caused By Climate Change Doomed the Mayans. “Debilitating drought may have been a major factor in the fractious politics that ended the Maya civilization, according to archaeologists. Maya culture thrived in wet seasons and fell apart when the rains ceased…. Many of the best-recorded ruling Maya lineages were founded around 440 to 500 C.E. during [an] interval of anomalously high rainfall…. And the opposite is also true. A drying trend started around … 660 C.E., with sporadic drought cycles lasting several decades. The early stages of this dry trend correspond with an increase in warfare among Mayan cities…. Drought triggered balkanization and isolation, increased warfare, and generally destabilized Maya society….” Boyle, R. 2012. Political Strife Caused By Climate Change Doomed the Mayans. Popular Science, 09 November 2012.

How High Could the Tide Go? “In most… previous [on a geological time scale] warm periods, some ice remained near the poles, in Greenland and Antarctica. Today, enough water is stored as ice in those regions to raise the level of the ocean roughly 220 feet, should all of it melt. The fossil record suggests that temperatures slightly warmer than today would not be enough to melt the ice caps entirely. But an increase of even a few degrees Fahrenheit in the average global temperature does appear to cause severe damage. From the last time that happened, about 120,000 years ago, scientists have found more than a thousand elevated fossil beaches around the world. Many scientists believe that, as a result of human-induced warming, temperatures are already entering the danger zone….” Gillis, J. 2014. How High Could the Tide Go? New York Times, 21 January 2013.

Understanding Climate’s Influence on Human Evolution. “The hominin fossil record documents a history of critical evolutionary events that have ultimately shaped and defined what it means to be human, including the origins of bipedalism; the emergence of our genus Homo; the first use of stone tools; increases in brain size; and the emergence of Homo sapiens, tools,, and culture. The Earth’s geologic record suggests that some evolutionary events were coincident with substantial changes in African and Eurasian climate, raising the possibility that critical junctures in human evolution and behavioral development may have been affected by the environmental characteristics of the areas where hominins evolved. [This document] explores the opportunities of using scientific research to improve our understanding of how climate may have helped shape our species.” Hamilton, R. et al. 2010. Understanding Climate’s Influence on Human Evolution. National Research Council, National Academies Press.